Surgical instruments in the Taxila Museum.

There is substantial historical evidence to support the prevalence of surgical practice during ancient times in the subcontinent of India. However, in contrast to the contemporaneous Greek and Roman periods, there is a notable absence of any archaeological finds in the form of surgical instruments. Inquiries to major museums and personal contacts have not been fruitful. This lack of relevant archaeological evidence of surgery in this part of the world is surprising. It cannot be explained by climatic conditions alone, since museums are full ofmetal objects that were excavated in a reasonably preserved state. Girindranath Mukhopadhyaya has commented, "as far as I have been able to trace, our museums contain no finds supplying us with any information".' Acknowledging a complete absence of any archaeological finds, his monograph relies on numerous illustrations of surgical instruments and compares these with modem instruments copied from various catalogues of the period. This paper reports on one exceptional archaeological site where surgical instruments and other medical equipment have been discovered; it was also a known seat of medical education. Taxila is one of the most important archaeological sites in the subcontinent. It is situated about 20 km north of Pakistan's capital, Islamabad. The original archaeological survey and excavations were carried out before the Second World War by Sir John Marshall (1876-1958), who meticulously recorded the discoveries and historical details in three volumes.2 The excavations continue, yet even such prolonged activity has not uncovered all that is still hidden under the earth. The archaeological sites comprise three main townships and many smaller ruins, scattered in a radius